Category Archives: prints and drawings

prints and drawings

Strödda handteckningar

Ludwig Fehr after drawings by Pehr Nordqvist (1771–1805), Strödda handteckningar … Efter originalernacopierade och utgifne i stentryck … [Scattered drawings…after the originals, copied and published in lithography] (Gothenburg: Ludwig Fehr, 1822). 48 lithographs. Graphic Arts Collection GA2021- in process

This rare book of Swedish caricatures lithographed by Ludwig Fehr revived the popular art of Pehr Nordqvist, who died at the young age of 34. Fehr might have chosen these simple line drawings as a way to introduce his newly established lithographic press in Gothenburg. He and his son had already established lithographic printing in Copenhagen and Stockholm, and would soon do the same in Oslo. This volume is one of the only surviving documents from their Gothenburg venture.

According to Norsk Biografisk Leksikon

“In 1816, Fehr was called to Copenhagen to work in a lithographic workshop that had been started by Carl Lose and Heinrich Wenzler a few years earlier. But already the following year he left Copenhagen and went to Stockholm. Together with his son Gottlieb Louis Fehr (1800–55) and printer Johan C. Müller, he applied for permission to live and work in Sweden. The application was granted, and in the spring of 1818, the printing house Fehr & Müller was established. However, the company had difficulties with its operations and in 1819 Fehr withdrew from the business. In the following years, he had Copenhagen as his main base, interrupted by some stays in Germany and Sweden.

…L. Fehr & Søn quickly established its business in Christiania. As early as November 1822, they announced their first print, Professor Hansteen’s Portrait in Steentryck. Portraits of contemporary famous men also continued to be part of their product range. This also gave Fehr the opportunity to use his skills as a portraitist. The company could also offer lithographed landscape photos and flower photos. Some of these were produced as pre-prints for use by Fehr’s drawing and painting students.”

Anyone with Swedish willing to translate the joke?




Anatomy for Painters

Gilles Demarteau (1722-1776) after Charles Monnet (1732-1809), Etudes d’anatomie a l’usage des peintres [= Anatomical studies for Painters] ([Paris]: Rue de la Pelterie, à la cloche, 177_?). 42 leaves of crayon manner etchings and engravings, printed in sanguine ink. Graphic Arts Collection GAX 2021- in process

 

 

During the 18th century, soft chalk or crayon drawings came into vogue, not as studies for paintings but as final works in themselves. Gilles Demarteau was one of several master printers credited with inventing a process to translate these drawings into etchings, in order to sell multiple copies and promote the artist’s work. The process is called crayon manner etching and to further replicate the drawings, the copper plates were printed using colored inks, especially sanguine or red. Americans will sometimes use the French words, ‘en sanguine’, to describe these prints but it simply means printed with rose colored ink.

 

After a rich and venerated career as a painter and illustrator, Charles Monnet spent his last years as a drawing master in Saint-Cyr. For his students, he made a series of delicate anatomical studies, completed in red crayon and reproduced inexpensively by Demarteau in the new crayon manner, so that each student could own a study copy.

Leaf 2: “Cette suite est divisée en sept cahiers pour faciliter aux jeunes gens les moyens de l’acquerir; et se vend à Paris ches Demarteau, graveur et pensionnaire du roi, rue de la Pelterie à la Cloche”= “This suite is divided into seven fascicles to make it easier for young people to acquire it; and is sold in Paris by Mr Demarteau, engraver and scholar of the king, rue de la Pelterie, at the sign of the bell.”

 
It is curious that so many plates were printed crooked on the paper but perhaps what is a result of the inexpensiveness of the project or the youthful indifference of its audience. Regardless, the book is a welcome addition to the Graphic Arts Collection.

See more: Duval & Cuyer. Anatomie plastique, p. 214-216; Choulant, History and bibliography of anatomic illustration, p. 352; for variant imprint, cf. Wellcome Catalogue of Printed Books. IV, p. 155.

April is for the Birds. Save the Date.

April is for the Birds:
From Audubon’s Extraordinary Birds of America to the Indispensable Pocket Field Guides

Grab your binoculars and join us on Friday, April 30, 2021, at 2:00 p.m. for an hour of virtual birding, as we turn the pages of John James Audubon’s gigantic, hand painted Birds of America (1827-38). Rarely does the public have the opportunity to see this amazing four-volume work and when they do, it is usually only one plate through a sealed case. As we have done for our students, we will page through multiple volumes so you can experience the colossal scale of Audubon’s birds, painted life-size and then transferred to copper plates for the printing and painting of the published ‘double-elephant’ volumes.

Introducing us to Audubon’s remarkable work will be Rachael Z. DeLue, Christopher Binyon Sarofim ’86 Professor in American Art, Professor of Art and Archaeology and American Studies, and the current Chair of the Department of Art and Archaeology at Princeton University. Julie Mellby, Graphic Arts Curator, will focus on master printer Robert Havell, Jr. who took Audubon’s paintings and transformed them into 435 aquatints. We will follow the trail that brought four tons of copper printing plates across the Atlantic and left several at Princeton University Library, where they remain today.

Next we will be joined by Robert Kirk, Publisher, Princeton Nature, with Princeton University Press who will bring us up to date with the field guides used by birders, from the amateur to the professional. Kirk not only acquires a broad range of nature reference titles, but he also works on a select number of fully interactive apps and will show some of their of the most recent titles. While Audubon’s oversize originals are rarely viewed, many of these authoritative guides are indispensable resources found in the pockets of conservation professionals worldwide.

This webinar is free and open to the general public, but we ask you to register:HERE

Recordings for previous webinar in the Special Collections Highlights Series can be viewed here. To request disability-related accommodations for this event, please contact pulcomm@princeton.edu at least 3 working days in advance.

Philip Freneau, Princeton Class of 1771


Unidentified artist after an engraving by Frederick W. Halpin (1805-1890), Philip Freneau, no date. Pastel on paper. Graphic Arts Collection GA 2006.02617. Halpin’s engraving below.


“Philip Morin Freneau (1752-1832) … entered the Class of 1771 to prepare for the ministry. …As his roommate and close friend James Madison recognized early, Freneau’s wit and verbal skills would make him a powerful wielder of the pen and a formidable adversary on the battlefields of print. Freneau soon became the unrivaled “poet of the Revolution” and is still widely regarded as the “Father of American Literature.”

Although Freneau had produced several accomplished private poems before college, it was the intense experience of pre-Revolutionary-War Princeton that turned the poet’s interest to public writing. Political concerns led Madison, Freneau, and their friends Hugh Henry Brackenridge and William Bradford, Jr., to revive the defunct Plain Dealing Club as the American Whig Society. Their verbal skirmishes with the conservative Cliosophic Society provided ample opportunities for sharpening Freneau’s skills in prose and poetic satire. Charged with literary and political enthusiasm, Freneau and Brackenridge collaborated on a rollicking, picaresque narrative, Father Bombo’s Pilgrimage to Mecca in Arabia [below] , which presents comic glimpses of life in eighteenth-century America. This piece, recently acquired by Princeton and published by the University Library (1975), may well be the first work of prose fiction written in America.”–Alexander Leitch, A Princeton Companion, 1978. https://www.princetonianamuseum.org/artifact/b3a7858e-3a87-4fe0-b9ca-1fe1de52029a
https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/3397428

Hedi Bak’s Song of Songs


Hedi Bak (born Germany, active United States and Africa, 1927-2010), The Song of Songs which is Solomon’s (Chicago: [Printed and Published by Studio 22 Inc.], 1969. 30 woodcuts. Issued in portfolio. “Thirty original woodcuts by Hedi Bak. 100 copies … numbered and signed 1 to 100 …”. One of 10 artist proof copies on Kumoi paper, a soft Japanese paper which takes fine impressions. (The edition of 100 copies was printed on Rives BFK.) The quotation is from the Holy Scriptures, as used with the permission of the Jewish Publication Society of America. Graphic Arts Collection GAX 2021- in process

With little else to document of life and work of Hedi Bak, here are a few paragraphs from the Bak Art Legacy Project, a virtual museum to present the works of Bronislaw and Hedi Bak.

“Hedi Bak was a prolific printmaker, painter and educator. While working as a conservator at the Gutenberg Museum in Mainz, Germany, she was tasked with printing the first edition of prints from the newly rediscovered illustration blocks of the Luther Bible. Bruno and Hedi’s lives intersected World War II, immigrant life of artists in America – the south and the midwest and in Hedi’s case even Africa.”

“The origins of the project began in 1984, shortly after Hedi Bak suffered a massive stroke and lost her ability to walk. It was only a few years since Bronislaw died unexpectedly from a heart attack, and she was in danger of losing her home and studios right off the campus of Georgia Southern in Statesboro Georgia. With hundreds of works of art in danger, a committee was formed led by many faculty members, friends and neighbors. Clemens Bak, the son of the artists was elected secretary and represented the family. An agreement was struck with the College, to move the work into temporary storage on campus. The Library at Georgia Southern offered to keep Bronislaw’s papers and also ended up with a considerable collection of prints and several paintings. The rest was moved to Atlanta, where Hedi and her sons and their families settled.”

“In the 1960’s [Bak] managed Studio 22 and produced a volume of prints; both her own and in collaboration with Bronislaw. Later, when Bronislaw’s health gave out, the couple moved to Europe where she was employed, doing preservation work at the Gutenburg Museum in Mainz, Germany. In 1972 they returned to America and established studios in Statesboro, Georgia. Hedi continued to teach until 1980. In 1982 the year after her husband died, Hedi suffered a serious stroke while undergoing surgery. Told that she would never walk again, she struggled to regain her life. The next year her youngest son, Pieter died in a car crash.”

“In 1990, Hedi married another very talented artist, Charles Counts, a renowned potter, painter and poet from Tennessee. Charles had been teaching and living in Nigeria for many years. He took his wife back to Maiduguri in Northern Nigeria where he encouraged her to take up writing as well as her art, resulting in two delightful books, many stories and prints from her time in Africa. She spent many of her happiest years of her life with Charles, until he died unexpectedly in 2000.”

 

 


This is a biographical video about Bak’s husband Bronislaw.

A biography of her childhood: Hedi Bak, Mazel ([Place of publication not identified] : Rosedog Press, 2005).

Found in The Seed 4, Issue 4 (08-15-1969):

The Preservation of Richard MacGwire rather than Richard Crosbie

William Ward (1766–1826), after John James Barralet (about 1747-1815), The Preservation of Sir Richard MacGwire who fell into the sea (by the descent of a Balloon) off the coast of Ireland on the 12th May 1785. Mezzotint. Published in London June 4, 1787 by Thomas Milton and by Barralet in Dublin. Harold Fowler McCormick Collection.

 

This scene should have depicted the rescue of Richard Crosbie, who spent most of 1784 building a machine that could fly from Dublin to London. “…After two failed attempts, Crosbie finally achieved his aim of being the first person to ascend in a balloon in Ireland on 19 January 1785. Newspapers recorded crowds of at least 20,000 in Ranelagh (the Freeman’s Journal made the exaggerated claim that there ‘could not be less than 150,000 spectators’).”

Crosbie’s next attempt was in May 1785 but he was too heavy for the balloon so Richard MacGwire (often incorrectly listed as McGuire), a young Trinity student, volunteered to replace him. The balloon flew out to sea followed by a number of “balloon-chasers,” in small boats. MacGwire finally called the trip to an end by puncturing the balloon, which came down north-east of Howth. Barralet’s design shows MacGwire’s dramatic rescue by sailors while a second boat with Lord Henry Fitzgerald, brother of Lord Edward; Mr Oliver; and Mr Thornton look on. Read more: https://www.historyireland.com/18th-19th-century-history/a-most-ingenious-mechanicirelands-first-airman/

Note the balloon seen at the far back right.

Not all fine art prints are found in the Graphic Arts Collection, or for that matter in art museums. The McCormick Collection of Aeronautical Illustrations, 1783-1898 (GC014) consists of approximately 300 prints and drawings dealing with the first attempts at ballooning and air transportation collected by McCormick (Class of 1895). The material was given to the library by Alexander Stillman. See: Maurice H. Smith, “Travel by Air before 1900,” Princeton University Library Chronicle 27 (1966), pp. 143-147 [ full text].

A colored copy of this mezzotint can be found in the National Air and Space Museum Collection in Washington D.C.

Born in Dublin around 1747, John James Barralet moved to London where he was best known as a painting and drawing instructor. Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, he exhibited with the Society of Artists before returning to Dublin. Barralet’s book illustrations for Grose’s Antiquities of Ireland, Milton’s Views and other volumes kept him employed, a practice he continued in Philadelphia from 1795. He also learned engraving and is said to have introduced a ruling machine for engravers to America.

A Long Minuet

Born to the Manor (Mildenhall, Suffolk), young Henry William Bunbury left St Catharine’s College, Cambridge in 1769 to travel and experience life. From an early age, he showed a talent for drawing and by 1776, Bunbury was exhibiting his work at the Royal Academy. Although he never had much success as a serious painter, his satirical work was enjoyed throughout London. A day job with the army was the inspiration for Bunbury’s humorous books Hints to Bad Horsemen (1781) and An Academy for Grown Horsemen (Princeton has editions 1787, 1788, 1791, 1792, 1796, 1808, 1809, 1825).

 

Also around that time, Bunbury drew a series of dancers attempting a minuet, which were pasted together to form a five-foot satirical panorama. The original drawing, now at the Yale Center for British Art, was engraved and published by William Dickinson under the title A Long Minuet as Danced at Bath.


William Dickinson (1746-1823) after Henry William Bunbury (1750-1811), A Long Minuet as Danced at Bath, June 25, 1787. Stipple engraving on four attached plates, approximately 5 feet long. Published by Dickinson, London. Inscribed upper center: “Bos, Fur, Sus atque Sacerdos.”; lower center: “A Long Minuet As Danced At Bath. Longa Tysonum Minuit , Quid velit & possit rerum concordia discors. Horace.” Graphic Arts Collection GAX Oversize Rowlandson 1787.2f

 

Thanks to the British Museum we know who many of the dancers represent, beginning at the left:

The 1st Mrs Lewis Teissier; much like Anthony Aubert for whom it was done; Miss Vine; The Lord Mair; The Lady Maress; Lord North; Lady Guilford; Monsr Pereg… Bauquier of Paris… 1st Comm… chez Monsr Peuchant [?]; Miss North; Monsieur Pengtcent [?] private envoy to the P. of W. from the King of France; Lady North; Monsieur Grant a Banker at Paris; Miss Dyke; qry [query?] Stephen Teissier; Mrs Laste [?]; qry [query?] Mr. Matthew Purling. my son J Lewis says this however was intended for the Revd. Henry Bate. of turbulent political memory; [unidentified]; [unidentified]; Mrs. Bunbury. Mr. B_s Wife; Tyson – Master of Ceremoni[es].

So loved was Bunbury and his humorous work that when he sat for a portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830), he was asked to pose holding “The Long Minuet.” And if that were not enough, Lawrence’s pastel, now at the National Portrait Gallery, London, was engraved by Thomas Ryder (1746-1810) and distributed by multiple print sellers.

Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830), Henry William Bunbury, ca. 1788. Pastel. National Portrait Gallery, UK 4696

Thomas Ryder (1746-1810) after Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830), Henry William Bunbury Drawing His ‘Long Minuet’, April 24, 1789. Stipple engraving with hand coloring. Published by S. Watts, London. National Portrait Gallery, London, D15022

 

 

 

Female Equitation

Mrs. Stirling Clarke, The Ladies’ Equestrian Guide, or, The Habit & the Horse: a treatise on female equitation, with illustrations lithographed by Messrs. Day & Son, from photographs by Herbert Watkins (London: Day & Son, [1857]). 9 plates, tinted lithographics by Day & Son after photographs by Herbert Watkins (1828-1916). Graphic Arts Off-Site Storage 2021- in process.

Nannie Lambert Power O’Donoghue (1843-1940) and A. Chantrey Corbould (1852-1920), Riding for Ladies, with Hints on the Stable (London: William Clowes & Sons for W. Thacker & Co., Calcutta, Thacker, Spink, & Co., and Bombay, Thacker & Co., 1887). Woodburytype frontispiece. Graphic Arts Off-Site Storage 2021- in process

 

The Graphic Arts Collection is fortunate to have acquired two works by female authors concerning horsemanship for upper class women in the 19th century. It is unfortunate that the earliest by a Mrs. Clarke cannot be identified with her own name but only by her husband’s. Written in 1857, Clarke’s book comes a full twenty year before that of Nannie Power O’Donoghue’s work. It is a thorough discussion of horsemanship including notes on stabling, training, shoeing, and doctoring, by and for women.

Mrs. Stirling is a mystery beyond her marriage, she even leaves her name off the title page, preface, or introduction. Her preface begins by assuring any man reading the book that he need not worry. She has no desire to “trench upon ground hitherto trodden by the more privileged sex” nor does she offer “any suggestion for their enlightenment.” So, if you are of the male sex, shut your computer and stop reading.

Stirling continues, “I write exclusively for the guidance of my own sex, well knowing the vast importance to the fair novice of a manual which brings her acquainted with that equal pride of prince and peasant—the horse—and with the fascinating and elegant science which teaches how to guide and govern him, and how to guide and govern herself with respect to this noble creature.” Riding well needs training, as Stirling quotes, “True knowledge comes from study, not by chance, As those move easiest who have learned to dance.”

 

 

Riding was in the mid-nineteenth century a regular activity among women, as she comments: “Some years ago, riding was by no means general amongst the fair sex; then ladies on horseback were the exception and not, as now, the rule, but “grace à notre charmante Reine,”

“Whose high zeal for healthy duties
Set on horseback half our beauties,”

there is now scarcely a young lady of rank, fashion, or respectability, but includes riding in the list of her accomplishments; and who, whether attaining her end or not, is not ambitious of being considered by her friends and relatives, “a splendid horsewoman.’ Yet how few can really claim this envied appellation! Habit may do much, and, coupled with science, a great deal more; but good riding, with very few exceptions, is neither a habit nor an instinct. Dancing we all know to be an instinctive motion, a natural expression of joy ; but mark the dancing of the rustic milkmaid, and that of the educated and accomplished lady; the one is an untutored, clumsy bound, the other the very poetry of motion ; and the latter should riding be.”

 

The second acquisition by a woman for women is Nannie Lambert Power O’Donoghue‘s Riding for Ladies [top] with illustrations by A. Chantrey Corbould (1852-1920). Perhaps it was her athleticism that allowed Power O’Donoghue, also known as Ann Stewart Lyster Lambert, to live to be 97 years old. While she wrote many books, she was best known for Ladies on Horseback, followed a few years later by Riding for Ladies (1887).

Originally published in a series of articles in the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News and Lady’s Pictorial, Riding for Ladies brought her writing together in a book so popular it is recorded as selling “more than 94,000 copies.” Unlike Stirling, her name is proudly announced on the title page and the book is filled with her many achievements and personal stories.

 

 

 

The National Picture Gallery in the Rotunda of the Capitol

The National Picture Gallery in the Rotunda of the Capitol: a collection of paintings illustrating the discovery of America and the early history of the United States / Executed expressly by order of Congress, by the most celebrated American artists (Washington : [s.n.], c1860). [4] leaves, [10] leaves of plates : ill., ports. ; 24 x 30 cm. Special Collections – Graphic Arts Collection. Oversize 2006-0279Q.

 

In 1859. eight large scale paintings filled the rotunda of the U.S. Capitol in Washington D.C. To document them, engravings were made by Robert Metzeroth after the works by Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860), John Vanderlyn (1775-1852), William Henry Powell (1823-1879), John Gadsby Chapman (1808-1889), John Trumbull (1756-1843), Robert Walter Weir (1803-1889), and Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828). In this volume, Metzeroth’s engravings are accompanied by outlines with explanatory letterpress captions. **The names do not always correctly match the engraving.

If you go to the rotunda today, you will see eight historical paintings: four revolutionary period scenes were commissioned by Congress from John Trumbull in 1817 and placed in the Rotunda between 1819 and 1824: Declaration of Independence; Surrender of General Burgoyne; Surrender of Lord Cornwallis; and General George Washington Resigning his Commission.

Four scenes of early exploration were added between 1840 and 1855: Landing of Columbus by John Vanderlyn; Discovery of the Mississippi by William Powell; Baptism of Pocahontas by John Chapman; and Embarkation of the Pilgrims by Robert Weir.

 

Because this volume of engravings is so rare and so fragile, the book has been digitized and is available online for viewing and downloading: https://catalog.princeton.edu/catalog/4736119

More information about the Capitol can be found here: https://www.aoc.gov/explore-capitol-campus/buildings-grounds/capitol-building/rotunda

“How a Presidential Rally Turned Into a Capitol Rampage” By Lauren Leatherby, Arielle Ray, Anjali Singhvi, Christiaan Triebert, Derek Watkins and Haley Willis. New York Times January 12, 2021:
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/01/12/us/capitol-mob-timeline.html

The Supreme Court and Paper Collars

Isaac Robert Cruikshank (1789-1856), Dandies Dressing, November 2, 1818. Hand colored etching. From Dandies series published by Thomas Tegg. Graphic Arts Collection. I.R.Cruikshank prints

 

High white collars came into fashion for men in the 18th century, at a time when the shirt, collar, and cravat were all washed and bleached together, causing considerable time and trouble for wives and maids. The invention of the removable collar has been claimed, at least in the United States, by Hannah Montague of “Collar City” (Troy, NY). As early as 1827, Montague came up with the idea of cutting one collar off her husband’s shirt that could be laundered separately and then buttoned back onto various shirts. See also:
https://hoxsie.org/2012/02/06/how_the_collar_city_got_its_name/

Most histories agree the first patent for a disposable paper collar was granted to the New York inventor Walter Hunt (1796-1859) on July 25, 1854 (who was also responsible for an early sewing machine and the first safety pin). In Philadelphia, William E. Lockwood established his own collar company a few years later but it wasn’t until the US Civil War and a cotton shortage that the sale of paper collars exploded.

 

In 1863 Lockwood bought or otherwise acquired the patents held by Solomon Gray and Andrew Evans. He then gathered 19 paper collar manufacturers together to form The Union Paper Collar Company, presuming they would control the market. The company placed warnings in local newspapers around the country telling people not to buy from any firm other than Union Paper Collar Co. Lawsuits were threatened.

For Christmas 1865, the New York Times ran a promotional story of a shopping trip a reporter took with an out-of-towner called O’Leum. Various shops and their merchandise were described, including S.W.H. Ward’s paper collars: “O’Leum has heard of WARD’s perfect fitting shirts and WARD’s handsome paper collars and cuffs for ladies and gentlemen. He therefore insists upon a visit to Mr. S.W.H. WARD, at No. 387 Broadway. The only wonder is that O’Leum, who appears to be an incorrigible traveler, and has almost wearied our reporter, does not also propose a trip to WARD’s other store, at Nos. 323 Montgomery-street, San Francisco. WARD sells O’Leum a gross of India-rubber enameled collars and cuffs and we are off … “–NYT December 21, 1865.

 

Ward was among the companies that did not want to join the Union Paper Collar Co monopoly and so, in 1866 they formed their own collective known as the United States Paper Collar Manufacturers’ Association.  Ward published his own advertisement [at the top], offering $20,000 if Lockwood or any member of the Union Paper Collar Company went forward with a lawsuit.

Only years later did several small suits move forward, one as far as the United States Supreme Court: the Union Paper Collar Co VS Van Dusen in October 1, 1874, which Lockwood lost.

The transcript is a wonderful document, with full descriptions of how the paper for collars was made, how it was cut and fashioned, as well as the machines used for these processes. The Court said new machines could be patented but not the original concept of a removable paper collar, which had already been created. Here’s a short section:

“After the “stock” — best rags or what else — is sorted and cut, it is generally cleaned by boiling, and finally put, with the requisite quantity of water, into the “beating engine,” where it is beaten or ground into pulp. The beating engine is simply a vat divided into two compartments by a longitudinal partition, which, however, leaves an opening at either end. In one compartment a cylinder revolves, called the “roll,” its longitudinal axis being at right angles to the length of the vat. In this cylinder, and parallel with its axis, are inserted a number of blades or knives which project from its circumference. Directly beneath the roll, upon the bottom of the vat, is a horizontal plate, called the bed-plate, which consists of several bars or knives, similar and parallel to those of the roll, bolted together. The roll is so arranged that it can be raised or lowered, and also the speed of its revolutions regulated at pleasure. The vat being filled with rags and water, in due proportion, the mass is carried beneath the roll, and between that and the bed-plate, and passing round through the other compartment of the vat, again passes between the bed-plate and roll, and so continues to revolve until the whole is beaten into pulp of the requisite fineness and character for the paper for which it is intended. When the beating first begins, the roll is left at some distance from the bed-plate, and is gradually lowered as the rags become more disintegrated and ground up. The management of the beating engine is left to the skill and judgment of the foreman in charge. The knives may be sharp or dull, the roll may be closely pressed upon the bed-plate or slightly elevated, the bars and knives may have the angles which they make with each other altered, so that they either cut off sharply, like the blades of scissors, or tear the rags more slowly as they pass between them. The duration of the beating also varies according to the nature of the pulp, the length of fiber required, the condition of the knives &c.; and the speed of the revolutions given to the roll is varied in like manner.

 

One of the many companies saved by this ruling was the Reversible Collar Company in Cambridge, Massachusetts, whose factory building is still standing at 25–27 Mt. Auburn & 10–14 Arrow Streets, although no paper collars are being produced.